From a reddit-Post I also followed regarding this issue, I got the information, that the Update seems to list correct packages it wants to modify in CBS.log, but it tries to modify other packages afterwards.
Referring to the post on reddit, the following PowerShell-Lines fix the issue for most of the clients in my environment:
CD HKLM:\
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB3186568~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.1044*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4033393~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.1549*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4054855~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.1554*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4054590~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.2072*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4486153~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.3106*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4486129~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.3106*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB3186574~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.1044*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4033399~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.1549*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4054596~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.2053*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4486159~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.2752*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }
Get-ChildItem 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Component Based Servicing\Packages\' | Where-Object { $_.Name -like '*Package_*_for_KB4486135~31bf3856ad364e35~amd64~~10.0.1.2752*' } | foreach { Set-ItemProperty $($_.Name+"*") -Name CurrentState -Value 0 }