DirectStorage Overview

  • Article

Introduction

This topic provides an overview of the DirectStorage APIs for Xbox Series X|S consoles only. Please see DirectStorage on Desktop for DirectStorage on Desktop details.

The latest NVMe storage devices connected by using a PCIe bus can achieve very high levels of throughput and IOPS (I/O requests per second). The overhead of Win32 APIs means that even though the available storage bandwidth can be utilized, taking advantage of it might result in an unacceptably high CPU utilization. This is especially true when the workload consists of a large number of small requests.

The DirectStorage APIs are designed to remove most of the operating system's overhead by closely interacting with the underlying NVMe hardware. This allows for achieving a higher bandwidth with lower CPU usage. The goal is to enable handling of up to 50,000 requests per second while using at most 10 percent of a single CPU core.

Existing issues

Game content is getting larger and larger as the need for higher resolution assets increases with each console generation. The existing Xbox One hardware and software has several limitations that are hampering developers in their ability to get data from the hard drive to memory for this next-generation content.

  • High CPU usage

    • The existing Win32 APIs could require an entire CPU core in overhead.
    • This is based on the number of requests from the title.

  • Insufficient maximum bandwidth from the disk

  • Inability to prioritize disk requests

    • Without an ability to prioritize title requests, it can be hard to create a responsive streaming system.

  • Inability to cancel disk requests

    • Without the ability to cancel requests, it can be hard to create a speculative read system.

  • No hardware accelerated decompression

    • Without hardware accelerated decompression, it can take a lot of CPU resources to perform the decompression in software.

The DirectStorage API set directly addresses each of these issues. The overall effect is drastically increased performance from the Xbox file system.

CPU usage

The main design goal for DirectStorage is to allow a title to sustain 50K IOPS and only use between 5 percent and 10 percent of a single CPU core. This allows the title to achieve maximum bandwidth from the NVMe storage subsystem, while at the same time allowing the CPU to be used for other title requirements.

DirectStorage also adds support for hardware decompression. Each read request can be routed directly from the NVMe drive to the built-in hardware decompression block. This eliminates the need for a title to spend CPU resources on decompression.

Queued pipeline model

DirectStorage uses a batch method, where multiple requests are added to a queue. At a later point in time, the queue is flushed to the next pipeline stage. This immediately reduces the overall CPU cost for a transition between pipeline stages. Under the existing Win32 API set, there's a transition for each request. The DirectStorage queues utilize lock-free algorithms to minimize contention. The title is given control over when each queue is flushed.

In many cases with the Win32 APIs, the data from the disk may need to be copied to another buffer. In some cases, the data may need to be copied more than once. DirectStorage removes this issue by mapping the title-provided destination buffer directly into each pipeline layer. The hardware will write directly into the buffer that's provided by the title.

Those changes contribute to significant reductions of the CPU overhead.

Decompression

The ability for the hardware to decompress data has been increased. It can now handle a wider variety of formats and at a higher speed than the NVMe subsystem can provide data. Moreover, DirectStorage supports in-place decompression, which removes the need to manage separate buffers for compressed and decompressed data.

The hardware supports BCPACK, DEFLATE, and provides the ability to swizzle the final contents. These formats aren't mutually exclusive. It's possible to have all three applied to data. This gives the title the ability to choose which method gives them the best compression ratio and performance. Different assets can use different compression and swizzle settings.

Queue depth

The previous recommendation was to only maintain 12–16 asynchronous requests in flight at a time on a rotational drive. Going any larger had no benefit on performance and going smaller would significantly hurt performance. This led to titles performing extra work to balance their outstanding read requests to stay within the recommended target.

With the DirectStorage goal to allow a title to achieve 50,000 IOPS, the recommendation has changed. The title no longer needs to try and balance between outstanding work and queue depth. The title should submit all its outstanding requests. There's no benefit to holding some requests back. In many cases, holding requests back could hurt performance as the hardware is stalled waiting for new requests.

The operating system is still required to break larger read requests into several smaller requests in some cases (for example handling disk fragmentation). However, this was considered in the DirectStorage architecture. The 50,000 IOPS design goal is based on the title count of IO operations and not the final requests going to the hardware.

Notification

In the Win32 architecture, a significant amount of overhead is spent on notifications of read completion. The title can either poll an OVERLAPPED structure, wait for an associated Event handle, or to perform a synchronous blocking read. Overall, this increases the resource demands of each read request.

DirectStorage keeps the two asynchronous concepts of notifications while also adding a third method. There's no support for synchronous blocking reads in DirectStorage—it's possible for a title to implement their own system but isn't recommended.

The first asynchronous method is implemented through a status block that's set when the associated requests are completed. The title can poll the block as needed to determine when the reads are complete. This is similar to the Win32 method of polling an OVERLAPPED structure for completion.

The second asynchronous method using a Windows Event object to signal completion. This is similar to using an OVERLAPPED structure with a corresponding Event object. The title can use WaitForSingleObject method to cause the calling thread to suspend until the read operations are complete.

The third asynchronous method is implemented by using an ID3D12Fence. The title can either suspend waiting for the fence or can poll the fence if desired. There's also the benefit that the GPU can use the fence for direct notification of completed requests.

The DirectStorage notification system isn't bound to a single read request. It's an entry placed within the queue, which is signaled when all the preceding read requests have finished. This gives the title control over how much granularity they desire for notification. Notification is always signaled in queue order. The queue can be considered a FIFO (first in, first out) queue. The title only needs to query the last relevant notification. All previously enqueued requests are guaranteed to have completed.

Memory-to-memory decompression

DirectStorage provides a queue type to invoke the decompression hardware with the decompression source being memory instead of a disk file. This allows the decompression hardware to be utilized if the compressed asset is not sourced from a file, or was previously sourced and kept into memory as a cache. A memory-sourced queue only accepts memory-sourced requests, and a file-sourced queue only accepts file-sourced requests.

If no decompression options are specified in a memory-sourced request, the decompression hardware can also act as a DMA copy engine.

While DirectStorage guarantees the completion notifications are in order, DirectStorage provides no guarantee on when the requests start to be processed. As a result, there must be no data dependencies between pending requests. That is, request A's destination cannot be used as request B's source, unless request B is enqueued after request A's completion.

Memory-sourced queues must be created with real-time priority. Additionally, memory-sourced real-time requests are always processed by the decompression hardware before disk-sourced requests that require decompression. If disk-sourced queues don't have any decompression requests then the two queue types are processed completely in parallel without affecting the other type.

Priority

DirectStorage allows each queue to be assigned a priority level. Each entry in the queue inherits the queue's priority. Four different priority levels are provided: real-time, high, normal, and low. Requests are processed in a weighted round robin manner. For example, process X requests at high priority before processing one request at normal priority. Process Y requests at normal priority before processing one request at low priority.

Priority weighting is counted against each request's size. The default weighting between each priorities is roughly 10x. This means for each 1KB of low priority request, 10KB of medium priority request and 100KB of high priority request would have been processed.

Existing Win32 read requests are routed through the same priority system. All Win32 requests are considered normal priority.

Memory-sourced queues must be created with real-time priority.

Cancellation

Each DirectStorage read request has a title provided 64-bit mask associated with it. This is to support cancellation of pending read requests. The title can cancel requests that match a specific set of flags within the mask.

Even with support for cancellation, it's still possible for a read request to be processed by the hardware. The title cancellation request is a best effort attempt. If the request is already being actively processed by the hardware, it can't be canceled.

Because the cancellation request is a best effort, the title must wait until it's been notified that the read request has finished processing. The title can't release any resources needed until a later notification in the queue is received. However, during this time, new requests that match flags that were used in a previous cancellation request can be enqueued and won't be canceled.

When a cancelled request completes, it is considered a success, even if it was cancelled and didn't produce the complete result. In other words, if cancellation is attempted on a request, the title can no longer consume the result of the potentially cancelled request upon completion.

Guarantee

The Xbox One and Xbox One S consoles had a minimum guarantee of 40 MB/s. The Xbox One X console increased the minimum guarantee to 60 MB/s. These numbers are well below the actual hardware limits, which are in the 130 MB/s range. This was entirely due to the overhead caused by the operating system.

DirectStorage removes most of the overhead caused by the operating system. This allows a minimum guarantee closer to the hardware limits. The new minimum performance guarantee is 2.0 GB/s over a 250 ms window for raw data. The use of decompression on the content will push the final bandwidth higher.

Future Xbox consoles will support the addition of dynamic user-installable drives that are also NVMe based. The same minimum performance guarantee that's provided for the internal drive is also provided for the user-installable drive.

API overview

The DirectStorage interfaces follow the same pattern as the Direct3D interfaces. The title initially obtains a singleton factory. The factory is used to create request queues and open files—each of these objects have a mapping directly to the hardware. Individual requests are then enqueued into a queue to be submitted to the hardware.

IDStorageFactoryX

IDStorageFactoryX is the main interface for creating queues, opening files, and submitting pending requests.

The IDStorageFactoryX object has the following methods.

  • OpenFile

    • Creates an IDStorageFileX object, which represents one file.

  • CreateQueue

    • Creates an IDStorageQueueX object. Used to create read requests.

  • CreateStatusArray

    • Creates an IDStorageStatusArray object, which manages completion status flags.

  • SetCPUAffinity

    • Restricts DirectStorage's out-of-calling-thread work to a title-defined set of CPU cores.
    • NOTE DirectStorage tries to do most of the work in the calling thread. Out-of-calling-thread work only happens when it can't be done in the calling thread. Examples are:
      • The underlying resource pipeline is full during IDStorageQueueX::Submit, and not all requests in the queue can be pushed forward. The remaining requests will be processed later when the resources free up, and it is done in a DirectStorage worker thread.
      • Processing of requests completion into ID3DFence or IDStorageStatusArray.

  • SetDebugFlags

    • Controls whether DirectStorage would do additional validations at request enqueue time to aid debugging.

  • SetStagingBufferSize

    • Sets the size of staging buffer used to temporarily store content loaded from the storage device before they are decrypted / decompressed. If only memory sourced queues are used, the staging buffer can be 0 sized.

IDStorageFactoryX1

The IDStorageFactoryX1 interface extends the IDStorageFactoryX interface by a GetStats method.

  • GetStats
    • Gets the DirectStorage statistics. This function can be used to integrate DirectStorage with existing diagnostic and telemetry pipelines. It does minimal processing and thus can be called often. The statistics do not include Win32 file IO operations.

IDStorageFileX

All files need to be initially opened by DirectStorage through the IDStorageFactoryX object. This is equivalent to using CreateFile in the Win32 API interfaces.

Files are opened with the FILE_SHARED_READ permission. If needed, titles can simultaneously open the file using the Win32 APIs provided the proper permissions are respected. During development, both loose and packaged deployments are supported.

Files are either closed by explicitly calling the Close function on the file object or when the last reference to the matching IDStorageFileX object is released. However, all outstanding I/O operations must be complete before the file can be closed. This means that both methods to close a file will block until all outstanding I/O operations on that file have completed.

The game can obtain a win32 handle to a file represented by an IDStorageFileX object by calling the GetHandle function. The handle is opened with GENERIC_READ permissions and FILE_SHARE_READ sharing mode. It can be used for querying the file's size, etc. The handle should be closed with CloseHandle() when it's no longer needed.

IDStorageQueueX

Read requests are submitted to the NVMe through an IDStorageQueueX object. However, the requests aren't submitted to the device until the title calls Submit on the queue, or one of the Enqueue methods filled more than half of the queue's capacity since last submission and triggers an automatic submission. Submissions are handled as a single transition to the next stage in the pipeline. This allows the title to control when the CPU cost happens for transition between the title and the kernel.

IDStorageQueueX objects have four properties.

  • SourceType

    • Specifies whether the queue can receive file-sourced requests or memory-sourced requests.

  • Priority

    • The priority of all requests submitted to the queue: real-time, high, normal, or low.
    • Memory-sourced queues must be created with real-time priority.
    • Requests are processed in a weighted round robin order based on priority.
    • Win32 requests are processed at the normal priority level.

  • Capacity

    • The maximum number of outstanding requests the queue can hold.
    • Attempting to enqueue a request when the queue is at capacity will block until entries are completed by the hardware.
    • The amount of memory needed for a queue is approximately queue capacity multiplied by the size of a DSTORAGE_REQUEST.

  • Name

The hardware will process requests asynchronously to achieve the highest throughput. However, unlike Win32, the title is notified of completion in FIFO order. On notification of completion, it's guaranteed that all previous requests to the same queue have also completed.

IDStorageQueueX1

The IDStorageQueueX1 interface extends the IDStorageQueueX interface with the EnqueueSetEvent method.

EnqueueRequest

This interface is functionally the same as the Win32 ReadFile interface. Individual read requests are created and submitted to the queue. The main difference is that DirectStorage allows many requests to be queued up before submission, supports hardware decompression, and supports cancellation.

Requests have several main properties.

Source of the request Depending on the combination of Options.SourceType and Options.SourceIsPhysicalPages, DirectStorage uses one of the following 3 groups of properties to specify where the source data exists:

  • File and FileOffset

    • This group is used when Options.SourceType is DSTORAGE_REQUEST_SOURCE_FILE
    • File is previously opened with IDStorageFactoryX::OpenFile.
    • FileOffset needs to be 16-byte aligned if decompression is used, or has no alignment requirement if decompression is not used.
      • This is a major change from Win32, which required 4 KiB alignment within the file for asynchronous reads.

  • Source

    • This group is used when Options.SourceType is DSTORAGE_REQUEST_SOURCE_MEMORY and Options.SourceIsPhysicalPages is FALSE.
    • The memory buffer holding data to be decompressed.

  • SourcePageArray and SourcePageOffset

    • This group is used when Options.SourceType is DSTORAGE_REQUEST_SOURCE_MEMORY and Options.SourceIsPhysicalPages is TRUE.
    • Similar to Source, but provides the source memory buffer in the form of an array of 64KB physical pages and the byte offset in the first page.
    • Physical 64KB pages can be allocated by XMemAllocatePhysicalPages.

SourceSize

  • Size, in bytes, of the source data to be read, either from a memory buffer or from a file.

IntermediateSize

  • When both zlib and BCPACK decompression are enabled in this request, IntermediateSize is used to specify the intermediate size that the source data zlib-decompresses to (and BCPACK-decompresses from).
  • Otherwise, it should be set to 0.

Destination of the request Depending on Options.DestinationIsPhysicalPages, DirectStorage uses one of the following 2 groups of properties to specify where the destination exists:

  • Destination

    • This group is used when Options.DestinationIsPhysicalPages is FALSE.
    • The destination buffer for the final loaded data.
    • Decompression happens using shared internal buffers and can be considered in-place.

  • DestinationPageArray and DestinationPageOffset

    • This group is used when Options.DestinationIsPhysicalPages is TRUE.
    • Similar to Destination, but provides the destination memory buffer in the form of an array of 64KB physical pages and the byte offset in the first page.
    • Physical 64KB pages can be allocated by XMemAllocatePhysicalPages.

DestinationSize

  • Expected size, in bytes, of the final loaded content. The destination must must contain sufficient space to accommodate the operation.
  • The size must be equal to SourceSize when decompression isn't used, or be greater than SourceSize when decompression is used.

CancellationTag

  • An arbitrary 64-bit tag that's defined by the title.
  • This tag is used as a mask for cancellation requests.

Name

  • Optional string to aid in debugging. The Name can appear in developer tooling, such as such as PIX (NDA topic), or in the error record obtained from IDStorageQueueX::RetrieveErrorRecord. The Name string needs to be accessible through the lifetime of the request.

Options

  • ZlibDecompress
    • Indicates the data needs to be decompressed by using the RFC 1950 decompression standard.
  • BcpackMode
    • Indicates which mode of BCPACK should be used to decompress the data.
    • None is a valid option and means that the data isn't BCPACK compressed.
  • SwizzleMode
    • Indicates how the final data should be swizzled in memory. Must be DSTORAGE_SWIZZLE_MODE_NONE in the current release.
  • DestinationIsPhysicalPages
    • Indicates the destination buffer is specified using DestinationPageArray and DestinationPageOffset instead of Destination.
  • SourceType
    • A request can either be memory-sourced, and thus has the Source / SourcePageArray & SourcePageOffset properties, or file-sourced, and thus has the File / FileOffset properties.
  • SourceIsPhysicalPages
    • Indicates the source buffer is specified using SourcePageArray and SourcePageOffset instead of Source.

EnqueueStatus/EnqueueSignal/EnqueueSetEvent

Requests can be enqueued and treated as a series of related requests. This is done by enqueuing for notification when processing has reached a certain point in the queue. Notifications are processed only when all previous read requests have completed. This guarantees data is immediately available from all previous requests.

The title has two polling methods and one wait method for notification. The title can insert an ID3D12Fence object or an IDStorageStatusArrayX object or a set event operation. The ID3D12Fence behaves as expected for an ID3D12Fence object. A title thread can wait on an Event, the CPU can poll the fence, and the GPU can poll the fence. The IDStorageStatusArrayX object allows polling for completion by the CPU and access to possible read failures. The EnqueueSetEvent method allows a title thread to wait for the specified event instead of polling. This differs from ID3D12Fence::SetEventOnCompletion as the Xbox implementation of ID3D12Fence::SetEventOnCompletion spins on the fence until it is signaled, thus consuming the CPU hardware thread until the signal, whereas EnqueueSetEvent allows the title thread to use WaitForSingleObject / WaitForMultipleObjects to yield the CPU to other threads until the event is signaled.

As previously mentioned, all requests complete in order, even if the underlying hardware decides to reorder them for performance. Notifications aren't signaled until all previous enqueued requests on the queue have completed.

Decompression

Decompression is handled with dedicated hardware. This removes the CPU overhead from traditional decompression algorithms. DirectStorage allocates a fixed block of memory during initialization to use as a working buffer for decompression. This allows for in-place decompression and removes the need to hold both the compressed and decompressed data in memory at the same time.

The decompression hardware supports three modes of operation. The modes aren't mutually exclusive so any combination of modes can be specified. Decompression modes are applied in the following order: DEFLATE, BCPACK, and Swizzle.

  • ZLibDecompress

  • BCPack

    • BCPack is a custom entropy coder designed specifically for BCn data. Generally, what this means is that color endpoints are separated from palette indices (that is, weights) and compressed using a rANS algorithm.

  • Swizzle

    • Swizzle and shuffle modes can provide additional optimizations in content pipelines.

When high entropy data is compressed, it is possible for the compression to actually grow the size. Conversely, the corresponding decompression will shrink in size. DirectStorage doesn't allow shrinking decompression, and it is up to the title to detect high entropy data that is incompressible and avoid compressing on such assets. For further details, see the guide to Optimizing Compressed Content using DirectStorage and XBTC (NDA topic).

Staging buffer

DirectStorage internally uses a buffer to stage all content read from the raw NVMe storage, before it performs operations such as decryption and decompression. This staging buffer allows the NVMe drive and the decryption / decompression silicon to work in a pipeline in parallel. It defaults to 32MiB, and is allocated when the first DirectStorage factory pointer is retrieved.

If a title uses DirectStorage for only memory-to-memory decompression operations, the staging buffer isn't necessary, and SetStagingBufferSize can be called to set the staging buffer size to 0. SetStagingBufferSize can only be called when no IDStorageQueueX object nor IDStorageFileX object exists.

The current release of DirectStorage only supports 0 or 32MiB staging buffer sizes.

CancelRequestsWithTag

DirectStorage supports cancellation of requests. Each request has a title defined 64-bit tag associated with it. The purpose is to serve as a bitmask for which requests to cancel. The title supplies a mask and a value for cancellation. The queue will attempt to cancel all requests that match the criteria: tag & mask == value.

Cancellation is a best-effort operation. Depending on where the request is in the pipeline, it might not be possible to cancel. For example, the request could be undergoing decompression by the hardware, which can't be canceled. The API returns immediately and doesn't block waiting for all canceled requests to be processed. Titles must wait until a later notification in the queue is signaled before freeing the resources that are associated with canceled requests.

Care must be taken to avoid adding requests to a queue at the same time CancelRequestsWithTag is being called. In this case, the behavior is undefined. However, requests added to the queue after the call to CancelRequestsWithTag has returned won't be canceled even if the criteria are matched. Only previously enqueued requests will be canceled.

GetErrorEvent/RetrieveErrorRecord

If a read causes an error, that read is marked as completed. Future notifications in the queue aren't blocked from signaling. Notification of errors is handled through an Event object associated with the queue which can be retrieved with GetErrorEvent. The title can use WaitForSingleObject on the Event returned by GetErrorEvent. If the event is signaled, the title can get the first error since the last call to the RetrieveErrorRecord function by calling the RetrieveErrorRecord function.

The error record returned by RetrieveErrorRecord only contains data for the first failed request in the queue since the last RetrieveErrorRecord. The data in the error record is undefined if the error Event isn't signaled or the data has already been retrieved.

Query

Obtains information about the queue. It includes the DSTORAGE_QUEUE_DESC structure used for queue's creation as well as the number of empty slots and number of entries that need to be enqueued to trigger automatic submission.

Best Practices

The same best practices advice given for Win32 also applies to DirectStorage. The thresholds for optimal performance have changed radically.

Read sizes

The original advice for a rotational disk was to read in at least 128 KiB blocks. The performance continues to increase with larger block sizes. 512 KiB-sized blocks achieved the best performance.

The lack of moving parts on the NVMe creates a much lower threshold. The read performance has a large jump starting with 32 KiB reads and starts to top out with 64 KiB. Reading larger than this doesn't increase performance. This means that less effort needs to be made to merge data into larger blocks in the package for optimal performance.

Above 512KiB, if decompression is used, prefer smaller but more requests in parallel, over a single huge request. A single huge request will force the decompression to be serialized, while multiple concurrent requests allows multiple decompression hardware units to work in parallel and achieve full throughput.

In the October 2022 release of the Microsoft Game Development Kit (GDK) the maximum single request size has been increased from 32MiB as destination to 1GiB for combined source + destination memory usage. It is provided to ease porting from other storage APIs that allow large read sizes. But the above size recommendation for achieving maximum throughput still remains the same, as large requests don't allow multiple decompression hardware units to work in parallel.

Order

Previously with rotational disks, effort was spent to order the location of reads on the disk. The ideal situation was to read from sequential locations on the disk. This created the minimum amount of movement by the disk head, which removed seek time as a factor. Doing this could increase performance by an order of magnitude. There was even benefit in submitting random reads sorted by location, and in some cases, 2x faster.

It's still useful to order read requests to be as sequential as possible on an NVMe drive. The NVMe drive reads in 64 KiB-aligned blocks. Because of this, there can be wasted bandwidth reading unused sections of a 64 KiB block. If a read request is only for 4 KiB, there will be 60 KiB of wasted bandwidth. The NVMe will reuse that extra 60 KiB to satisfy other pending requests if possible. For example, if you have two sequential reads, one for 32 KiB followed by 8 KiB, there's still only one 64 KiB read from the drive.

Queue management

The recommendation with rotation disks was to have a queue size between 12 and 16. There was no benefit with a larger queue depth, and the performance reduction from using smaller queue depths was significant.

The NVMe specification says an NVMe drive should support multiple queues with a depth of up to 65,536 entries per queue. DirectStorage supports this requirement, thus allowing the title to submit thousands of requests at once.

Previously with rotational disks, titles would buffer pending requests to keep a queue depth in the 12 to 16 range. The recommendation for DirectStorage is to not buffer requests, enqueue requests as soon as they're created. The entire system is a pipeline, and title buffering will create bubbles in the pipeline, which can seriously hurt performance.

Another recommendation is to create a queue with a capacity at least four times the largest number of requests created per frame. This should allow enough capacity so new requests can be added without stalling, waiting for existing requests to complete.

Notification management

In general, the fewer notification requests added to the queue the better. The recommendation is to find a balance between title needs and keeping enqueued notification requests to a minimum. Enqueuing a notification after each request will only hurt overall performance due to the increased overhead of processing of those notifications.

One example might be grouping on content. For example, SFS textures, terrain needs (for example, mesh and texture), and actor needs (for example, mesh, texture, and animation). This allows a single notification to be bound to the availability of all assets that are needed to create an object.

The choice between using an ID3D12Fence versus a status array is dependent on the title needs. Does the data need to be used immediately by the GPU? Is it acceptable for the checking thread to suspend until reads are done? Is polling periodically good enough because data can only be processed at certain points in the frame?

Considerations

With the potential of a much higher number of requests in flight, some care must be taken to avoid creating bottlenecks in other parts of the title. The costs for the title to manage the requests could quickly overwhelm the savings achieved by DirectStorage. The recommendation is to look at all the supporting code per request and determine what can be minimized.

Does each request require the allocation of a new memory block?

  • The memory system has overhead to find a new block and update internal lists.
  • Consider reusing memory blocks as much as possible.

Is a lock required to update managers?

  • Creates more contention as more updates are performed.
  • Consider going lockless as much as possible.

Is speculative loading used?

  • Cancellation is supported, which could lead to creating more requests.
  • However, memory needs to be available for the speculation.
  • Consider hard limits on speculation thresholds.

See also

DirectStorage

DirectStorage Usage and Internal Details (NDA topic)

Optimizing Compressed Content using DirectStorage and XBTC (NDA topic)

Analyzing DirectStorage performance (NDA topic)